Of life were shown to develop hypertension in adulthood [65] and coronary heart disease [15]. In another study metabolic syndrome has also been reported in men at 58 years of age [66] who were born of low birth weight and experienced accelerated catch-up growth in early adulthood, up to 18 years of age. In a prospective Australian study, where a longitudinal pregnancy cohort was followed up from birth until 13 years of age, it was reported that growth trajectory in childhood predicted cardiovascular risk; cardiovascular risk was high in adolescents with restricted prenatal growth followed by accelerated postnatal growth [38]. In addition, a prospective US study where data were collected from a large biracial cohort of pregnant women and their offspring concluded that increasing growth percentiles during any period of early childhood increases the risk for high blood pressure [37]. 4. Low Birth Weight and IUGR Low birth weight is defined as birth weight below 2.5 kg [67], irrespective of gestational age and is universal to all ethnic groups/populations (according to the World Health Organisation) and can result from inappropriate growth in utero [68], preterm birth [69] or a combination of both. This review focuses on the effect of IUGR rather than preterm birth.Nutrients 2015,In clinical practice IUGR is generally assigned to small for gestational age infants with a birth weight and/or birth length below the 10th BX795 price percentile for gestational age [70]. It occurs as an abnormal restriction of foetal growth due to adverse genetic or environmental influences [71]. In general, growth restriction commencing from early pregnancy leads to proportional or symmetrical growth restriction, whereas in infants where there is mid-trimester or third trimester growth restriction there is disproportionate or asymmetrical growth restriction [72]. When there is symmetrical growth restriction the growth of the head, femur and abdomen is equally affected [71], whereas in asymmetric growth restriction there is disproportional growth of the foetus, with preferential blood flow to the brain, termed brain sparing, resulting in a baby with a relatively normal head size but a below normal body size [73]. This asymmetric type of growth restriction develops when oxygen or substrate supply to the foetus is reduced during the last trimester of pregnancy, often due to a reduced functional capacity of the placenta [74]. There are a number of studies suggesting that asymmetrical growth restriction in foetuses results in a worse outcome later in life than symmetrical growth restriction [75]. IUGR is not a specific disease per se but a manifestation of many maternal and foetal factors leading to poor foetal growth. There are many causes of IUGR including environmental and genetic factors. In general, IUGR usually results from nutrient and/or oxygen deprivation to the foetus, often due to both maternal and foetal factors [76]. Experimental evidence indicates that the primary environmental factor that regulates foetal growth in animals and humans is nutrient delivery to the foetus [70,77]. Nutrient delivery is dependent on maternal nutritional intake and adequate maternal blood flow, which is Tyrphostin AG 490MedChemExpress AG-490 essential for normal placental function [78]. In developed countries placental insufficiency is the leading cause of IUGR [76], whereas in developing countries maternal malnutrition is the major cause of IUGR resulting from long-term nutrient deprivation to the growing foetus [79]. As a.Of life were shown to develop hypertension in adulthood [65] and coronary heart disease [15]. In another study metabolic syndrome has also been reported in men at 58 years of age [66] who were born of low birth weight and experienced accelerated catch-up growth in early adulthood, up to 18 years of age. In a prospective Australian study, where a longitudinal pregnancy cohort was followed up from birth until 13 years of age, it was reported that growth trajectory in childhood predicted cardiovascular risk; cardiovascular risk was high in adolescents with restricted prenatal growth followed by accelerated postnatal growth [38]. In addition, a prospective US study where data were collected from a large biracial cohort of pregnant women and their offspring concluded that increasing growth percentiles during any period of early childhood increases the risk for high blood pressure [37]. 4. Low Birth Weight and IUGR Low birth weight is defined as birth weight below 2.5 kg [67], irrespective of gestational age and is universal to all ethnic groups/populations (according to the World Health Organisation) and can result from inappropriate growth in utero [68], preterm birth [69] or a combination of both. This review focuses on the effect of IUGR rather than preterm birth.Nutrients 2015,In clinical practice IUGR is generally assigned to small for gestational age infants with a birth weight and/or birth length below the 10th percentile for gestational age [70]. It occurs as an abnormal restriction of foetal growth due to adverse genetic or environmental influences [71]. In general, growth restriction commencing from early pregnancy leads to proportional or symmetrical growth restriction, whereas in infants where there is mid-trimester or third trimester growth restriction there is disproportionate or asymmetrical growth restriction [72]. When there is symmetrical growth restriction the growth of the head, femur and abdomen is equally affected [71], whereas in asymmetric growth restriction there is disproportional growth of the foetus, with preferential blood flow to the brain, termed brain sparing, resulting in a baby with a relatively normal head size but a below normal body size [73]. This asymmetric type of growth restriction develops when oxygen or substrate supply to the foetus is reduced during the last trimester of pregnancy, often due to a reduced functional capacity of the placenta [74]. There are a number of studies suggesting that asymmetrical growth restriction in foetuses results in a worse outcome later in life than symmetrical growth restriction [75]. IUGR is not a specific disease per se but a manifestation of many maternal and foetal factors leading to poor foetal growth. There are many causes of IUGR including environmental and genetic factors. In general, IUGR usually results from nutrient and/or oxygen deprivation to the foetus, often due to both maternal and foetal factors [76]. Experimental evidence indicates that the primary environmental factor that regulates foetal growth in animals and humans is nutrient delivery to the foetus [70,77]. Nutrient delivery is dependent on maternal nutritional intake and adequate maternal blood flow, which is essential for normal placental function [78]. In developed countries placental insufficiency is the leading cause of IUGR [76], whereas in developing countries maternal malnutrition is the major cause of IUGR resulting from long-term nutrient deprivation to the growing foetus [79]. As a.
